Family Violence Review Paper 2018 Part A
Primary Author: Sophie Allen - Inner East Primary Care Partnership
Local Review: Women's Health East
Academic Review: Professor Bob Pease - Professor of Critical Social Work, Chair of Social Work in the School of Health and Social Development, Deakin University
Family violence is named in many different ways: domestic violence, intimate partner violence, gender-based violence, relationship violence, violence in the home, violence against women, and men’s violence against women. Legislation provides the definition of family violence in Australia and Victoria. All definitions of ‘family violence’ essentially target ongoing behaviours aimed at controlling family members through fear. Acts which constitute family violence are different to the kinds of disagreements that occur in healthy relationships. They differ in one essential way: the use of ‘systematic control and abuse of power’. (VicHealth, 2010)
Family violence does not generally occur as a one-off incident, but more commonly is experienced as multiple incidents over a period of time. (VIC, 2012) The different types of violence often co-exist and physical violence is often accompanied by sexual and psychological violence. (WHO, 2012)
The term ‘family violence’ is enshrined in both the Commonwealth and Victorian State Government Acts. It is also the preferred term for use in Aboriginal communities, as it encompasses a broad range of kinship relationships. ‘Family violence’ also includes the other forms that violence within families takes, such as elder abuse and child abuse.
There is overwhelming evidence to show that family violence is predominantly perpetrated by men, against women. (Bolton, 2009) Gender-neutral language conceals the power relationships between men and women which are central to the determinants of family violence. It contributes to the misconceptions within communities surrounding this type of violence and inhibits the development of solutions which intervene to address the root causes, or determinants, of the problem. (Bolton, 2009) Women (and their children) are overwhelmingly the most vulnerable and exposed group. They are two and a half times more likely than men to have experienced violence from a partner in the last twelve months. (ABS, 2015)
The phrase ‘victim’ of family violence also has some terminology issues. Alternatives include ‘survivor of domestic violence’ or ‘women who have experienced family violence’. However, the term ‘victim’ is the most widely understood and commonly-used phrased and is used here with respect to those who experience family violence.
Scope for action
Strategy to prevent family violence in Australia tends to be dominated by the public health model. A public health model usually looks at the causes and effects of a disease in order to prevent, control and check its spread. Family violence is not a disease, and differs in many ways from the health issues traditionally associated with public health such as obesity or smoking. But family violence has significant effects on health and wellbeing and is a health, a human rights, and a criminal issue.
There are three points at which public health intervention can be directed. They are:
- Primary Prevention: preventing violence before it occurs;
- Secondary Prevention: taking action on the early signs of violence;
- Tertiary Prevention: intervening after violence has occurred. (WHE, 2016).
Strategic & Legislative Context
International
The United Nations Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) (1979) recognizes that violence against women is ‘a manifestation of historically unequal power relationships between men and women, which have led to domination over and discrimination against women by men...and that violence against women is one of the crucial social mechanisms by which women are forced into a subordinate position compared with men’. (UN, 1979)
See also the United Nations Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women and the Beijing Platform for Action. (UN, 1993) (UN, 1995) The Millennium Development Goal 3 aims to promote gender equality and empower women. It has been recognized that violence against women undermines efforts to realize those goals. (UN, 2012)
National
Policy
The National Plan to Reduce Violence against Women and their Children, 2010-2022 recognizes that ‘although only some aspects of family violence are criminal offences, any behaviour that causes the victim to live in fear is unacceptable’. The National Plan is focused on the prevention of violence by encouraging ‘attitudinal and behavioural change at the cultural, institutional and individual levels, with a particular focus on young people’.
The First Action Plan (2010-2013) focused on primary prevention. The Second Action Plan (2013-2016) includes secondary and tertiary intervention. (DSS, 2015)
The National Women’s Health Policy 2010 has five priority goals which broadly encompass the social determinants that affect women’s health, including to highlight the significance of gender as a determinant of women’s health. (DH, 2010)
Our Watch, VicHealth and ANROWS have collaborated to produce Change the Story: a shared framework for the primary prevention of violence. Change the Story establishes a shared understanding of the evidence and principles of effective prevention, and presents a way forward for a coordinated national approach. (Our Watch, 2015)
The National Framework for Protecting Australia’s Children 2009-2020 is designed to promote the safety and wellbeing of children. The target for this framework is a ‘substantial and sustained reduction in child abuse and neglect’. (DSS, 2015)
See also The Senate’s Finance and Public Administration References Committee 2015 report into Domestic Violence in Australia.
Other policies will affect the primary prevention of family violence in Aboriginal communities, including Closing the Gap and Closing the Gap in the Northern Territory.
Legislation
Family Violence Act 2011 (Cth)
At the national level, families at risk are protected by the Family Violence Act 2011 (Cth). The Act defines family violence as ‘violent, threatening or other behaviour by a person that coerces or controls a member of the person’s family...or causes the family member to be fearful’. That is, the behaviour must coerce, control or cause fear. (CTH, 2011)
A wide range of behaviours which constitute family violence are given under the Act including (and not limited to:
- Assault
- Sexual assault and other sexually abusive behaviour
- Stalking
- Repeated taunting
- Intentional damage or destruction of property
- Intentionally causing death or injury to an animal
- Unreasonable denial of financial autonomy
- Unreasonably withholding financial support needed to meet reasonable living expenses at a time when that family member is dependent on the person for financial support
- Preventing family members from making or keeping connections with family, friends and culture
- Deprivation of liberty. (CTH, 2011)
This Act also defines the exposure of a child to family violence as ‘if the child sees or hears family violence or otherwise experiences the effects of family violence’. The court is required to make protection of a child from family violence a primary consideration. (CTH, 2011)
State
Policy
There are a number of policies that influence responses to family violence in Victoria. These can broadly be divided between policies which concern the prevention of family violence and those which affect response and intervention after family violence has occurred.
Important background documents:
- The Victorian Charter of Human Rights and Responsibilities
- Victoria’s Vulnerable Children: Strategy 2013-2022
Victorian family violence policy currently references the old Victoria’s Action Plan to address Violence against Women and Children, 2012-2015. There is no new policy in place at the current time. The 2015 Royal Commission into Family Violence recommendations will determine future Victorian government policy responses.
The Strong Culture, Strong Peoples, Strong Families policy is a ten year plan to address Aboriginal family violence. Family violence is defined in this policy as ‘an issue focused around a wide range of physical, emotional, sexual, social, spiritual, cultural, psychological and economic abuses that occur within families, intimate relationships, extended families, kinship networks and communities. It extends to one-on-one fighting, abuse of Aboriginal community workers as well as self-harm, injury and suicide.’ Under the plan there are eight objectives:
- cultural safety;
- healthy families;
- education, awareness, prevention;
- safety for victims;
- accountability;
- healing;
- service capability; and
- research and evaluation.
The policy also creates the Indigenous Family Violence Regional Action Groups to take leadership roles in implementing community-led family violence initiatives and responses. Each action group has created a regional action plan specific to their area needs. (DHS, 2008)
The Indigenous Family Violence Primary Prevention Framework is an Indigenous-specific prevention resource developed under the policy and sets out six strategies for primary prevention:
- Raising community awareness
- Family strengthening
- Cultural strengthening
- Responding to grief and trauma i.e. to acknowledge the impact of past wrongdoing on Indigenous communities
- Community information and education
- Self-esteem and resilience building. (DHS, 2012)
The VicHealth Framework for Preventing Violence Against Women is another background paper to guide the primary prevention of violence against women.
Victorian Public Health and Wellbeing Plan 2015-2019
The plan includes prevention of violence and injury. (VIC, 2015)
Other strategies of interest are the Family Violence Risk Assessment and Risk Management Framework, Victoria’s Vulnerable Children Strategy 2013-2022, the Family Law Court’s Family Violence Best Practice Principles, and Living Free from Violence – Upholding the Right: the Victoria Police Strategy to Reduce Violence against Women and Children 2009-2014.
Legislation
In Victoria the Family Violence Protection Act 2008 (Vic) defines family violence as behaviour towards a family member that is:
- Physically or sexually abusive
- Emotionally or psychologically abusive
- Economically abusive
- Threatening
- Coercive
- In any other way controls or dominates the family member and causes that family member to feel fear for the safety or wellbeing of that family member or another person.
Family violence includes behaviour that causes a child to hear or witness, or otherwise be exposed to the effects of the above behaviour. (VIC, 2008)
This Act specifically ensures that even if this behaviour does not constitute a criminal offence, it is still an act of family violence. The Act gives examples of behaviours which may constitute family violence including:
- Assaulting or causing personal injury to a family member or threatening to do so
- Intentionally damaging a family member’s property, or threatening to do so
- Unlawfully depriving a family member of the family member’s liberty, or threatening to do so
- Causing, or threatening to cause, the death of or injury to an animal (whether or not it belongs to the family member) so as to control, dominate or coerce the family member. (VIC, 2008)
Economic abuse is defined as coercive, deceptive or unreasonably controlling behaviour without consent (a) which denies a person the economic or financial autonomy they would have had, or (b) by withholding or threatening to withhold the financial support necessary for meeting the reasonable living expenses of that person or that person’s child, if that person is entirely or predominantly dependent on the first person for financial support to meet those living expenses (for example, coercing a person to relinquish control or assets or income). (VIC, 2008)
Emotional or psychological abuse is defined as: behaviour by a person towards another person that torments, intimidates, harasses or is offensive to the other person (for example, repeated taunts, threatening to disclose a person’s sexual orientation, withholding a person’s medication, or threatening to commit suicide). (VIC, 2008)
A family member is defined as a person who:
- is or has been a spouse or domestic partner;
- has or has had an intimate personal relationship (whether sexual in nature or not);
- is or has been a relative (including grandparents, grandchildren, cousins, relatives by marriage, and for Aboriginal people including a person who under cultural traditional or contemporary social practice is considered to be a relative);
- is a child who normally or regularly resides with that person or has previously done so;
- is a child of a person who has or has had an intimate relationship with that person (whether sexual in nature or not);
- any other person who has been regarded as being like a family member.
Family member also includes any other person who may be reasonably regarded as like a family member having regard to the circumstances of the relationship including: the nature of the social and emotional ties between the two persons, whether they live together or relate together in a home environment, the reputation of their relationship being as like a family, cultural recognition of the relationship, the duration of the relationship and frequency of contact, financial dependence or interdependence, the provision of any responsibility or care (paid or unpaid), the provision of sustenance or support. (VIC, 2008)
Any associate of the family member who is subjected to violence is also covered by the Act.
Family Violence Intervention Orders
The Victorian Act covers the system of family violence intervention orders (FVIO) and family violence safety notices and creates offences for contravention of these. An application for a FVIO can be made by a police officer, an affected family member or any other person if they have the written consent of that family member, or the parent or guardian of an affected child, or other person who has the leave of the court. (VIC, 2008) Magistrates and Children’s Courts can issue a FVIO, or make an interim order to cover the time before the matter is heard in the court. (FAHCSIA, 2009)
Victorian police must complete a Family Violence Risk Assessment and Management Report at every incident they attend in order to establish their best strategy for protecting family members. (VIC, 2012) There is no longer any room for discretion in the police response to family violence and every call out is now reported.
When police attend a family violence call-out there are three options they can take one or more of:
- A referral to domestic violence support services;
- Civil responses - for example, a Family Violence Safety Notice, or a Family Violence Interim Intervention Order if the criteria for a safety notice is not met;
- Criminal responses –criminal charges. (VicPolice, 2014)
Cyber Stalking
The new and emerging issue of the coercive use of information and communication technologies (cyber stalking and surveillance, or the use of commonly available handheld devices to control or monitor a family member) is not specifically described under the Act and is the focus of recent research and commentary as a growing area of concern. This type of violence has long lasting consequences; for example, publication of sexual photographs taken on a phone and published on the internet affect not only the health of victims, but also impact on reputation, relationships and future employment. (WHV, 2009)
In 2013 the Law Reform Committee in Victoria reported on the Inquiry into Sexting. The report includes their recommendations into legal and other protections available to people who are affected by sexting-related incidents, specifically, that a new criminal offence of ‘non-consensual texting’ be introduced. (LRC, 2013)
In that same year the Domestic Violence Resource Centre Victoria released the findings of their SmartSafe project into technology-facilitated stalking. They found that mobile technologies:
- Allow perpetrators access to victims 24 hours a day
- Are used to abuse and harass women easily, immediately and from a distance
- Are an easy way to punish and humiliate women, both publically and privately
- Are used to control and monitor women via GPS tracking on smartphones and monitoring of social media accounts
- Are used in stalking during and after a relationship using a wide variety of technology (text messaging, social media, GPS and photo/video technologies)
- Has a significant impact on women’s mental and physical wellbeing
- Are used even after an intervention order is taken out. (Woodlock, 2013)
Eastern Metropolitan Region
Strategy
Together for Equality & Respect: A strategy to prevent violence against women in Melbourne’s East 2017-2021 provides a platform for local organisations to collaborate, share and build capacity to promote equal and respectful relationships. The four key strategic directions are:
- Lead and Achieve Change: prioritise the prevention of violence against women and lead initiatives to promote equal and respectful relationships;
- Contribute to the Evidence Base: use evidence-based prevention and evaluation;
- Invest in Workforce Development: build workplace capacity to address the determinants of violence against women;
- Strengthen Partnerships: work in partnership with a consistent prevention approach.
For further information see the Together for Equality and Respect website. (WHE, 2016)
Impacts & Outcomes
As well as direct effects on victims and families, friends, employers and co-workers, family violence has a significant indirect impact on communities and society associated with the medical, justice and support services needed to intervene when family violence is experienced and reported. (ABS, 2013)
Economic costs of family violence
At a national level, the annual costs of partner violence against women are estimated to be $12 595 billion in 2014-15. (PWC, 2015) A comprehensive report by PwC for VicHealth and Our Watch can be found in the Resources portal.
The National Council to Reduce Violence against Women and their Children estimate that if violence were to be reduced by just 10% by 2021-2022 under the National Council’s Plan for Australia to Reduce Violence against Women and their Children, then $1.6 billion in costs could be avoided. (NCRVWC, 2009) The 2015 PwC report suggests that this is an underestimation.
The National Council to Reduce Violence against Women and their Children found seven cost categories tied to family violence:
- pain, suffering and premature mortality associated with the experience of violence (these account for nearly half of all economic costs associated with family violence);
- public and private health system costs associated with treating the effects of violence;
- production-related costs, for example work absenteeism and employer costs;
- consumption-related costs, for example replacing damaged property, costs of moving;
- second-generation costs associated with children witnessing and experiencing family violence;
- administrative and other costs, for example police and justice systems, counselling and prevention programs;
- transfer costs, which are inefficiencies associated with payment of government benefits. (NCRVWC, 2009)
At a personal level, the costs of family violence are disruptive and complicated. It directly affects the financial security of women and children in all areas of life including paying bills, repaying debt, legal costs, accommodation costs, health, transport and child support costs etc. Women with family violence experience are also more likely to work part-time or casually, and have a disrupted work history. (Mitchell, 2011) (Phillips & Vandenbroek, 2015)
Employment is the key pathway to the financial security which allows women to escape entrapment in an abusive relationship, and to maintain their home and standard of living if they leave such a relationship. In recognition of this the Fair Work Act Amendment Bill (2013) has made changes to the Fair Work Act to incorporate a right to flexible work arrangements for employees experiencing family violence, or supporting a family or household member who is experiencing family violence. (FWO, n.d.)
Health costs of family violence
Family violence is associated with a wide range of health impacts. It is the single biggest health risk to Australian women aged 15-44. (VicHealth, 2004)
Family violence causes; physical injury, mental health problems, impaired social skills, financial hardship and homelessness. (VicHealth, 2004) It also increases the risk of criminal offending (a substantial proportion of women in prison have experienced prior abuse). (Mitchell, 2011) There is an association between family violence and child physical, sexual and emotional abuse and neglect. There may also be an association with intergenerational transmission of violence and re-victimisation. (Richards, 2011) Exposure to family violence is also linked to the take up of other health risk behaviours such as smoking, alcohol and substance abuse, self-harm, unsafe sexual behaviour, and physical inactivity. (WHO, 2012) (VicHealth, 2004)
In addition, the health impacts of family violence linger long after the actual abuse has occurred. (VicHealth, 2004)
Physical Impact
The following agencies record statistics on family violence offences and physical impact:
- ABS Recorded Crime statistics
- The Crime Statistics Agency has statistics showing offences against the person which arise from family violence incidents in Victoria
Fatalities
Australian statistics: The rates of fatalities linked to family violence in Australia have changed little over the last decade. (VicHealth, 2004) Up to date statistics are available through the National Homicide Monitoring Program at the Australian Institute of Criminology.
The most common relationships between offender and victim of homicide are those committed by friends or acquaintances and domestic relationships. Stranger homicides comprised only a small number of all homicides.
Of the domestic homicides, about two thirds are intimate partner homicide.
Women remain over-represented as victims of intimate partner violence. About two thirds of all female homicide victims are killed by someone they shared a domestic relationship with. Of all adult family violence homicides, about two thirds of the victims were female.
Victorian Statistics: The ABS Recorded Crime statistics have data on homicides in Victoria and tables of statistics focused particularly on family and domestic violence.
For information on the homicide of children involved in Victoria’s child protection system see the resources of the former Victorian Child Death Review Committee and the publications of the Commission for Children and Young People.
Physical Injury
In Victoria, family violence is responsible for 9% of the total disease burden of women aged 15-44 years and is the leading contributor to illness, disability and premature death, higher than other risk factors such as obesity, high blood pressure and high cholesterol. (VicHealth, 2004)
Physical injuries include bruises, cuts, burns, fractures, permanent disabilities, sexually transmitted infections and HIV, unwanted pregnancies, internal injury, head or brain injury etc. The Australian component of the International Violence against Women Survey found 29% of women who sustained injury required medical attention, and 30% felt that their lives were in danger in the most recent incident. (Mouzos & Makkai, 2004) The physical repercussions of violence include bruising, fractures, eye damage, chronic pain syndromes, permanent disabilities, gastrointestinal and gynaecological disorders, sexually transmitted infections and unwanted pregnancies. (VicHealth, 2011)
The Crime Statistics Agency has statistics showing offences which arise from family violence incidents in Victoria.
It has been estimated that about 20-25% of women experiencing family violence are subjected to both physical and sexual violence from a male partner. (VIC, 2012) Sexual assault data is available from the ABS Recorded Crime statistics.
Family violence during pregnancy has repercussions for both mother and unborn child including chronic maternal stress, miscarriage, premature labour, low birth weight, and stillbirth. (VicHealth, 2004) (VIC, 2012)
Mental Health
Mental health problems make up 60% of the burden of disease attributable to family violence. Victims of family violence experience stress, anxiety, depression, poor self-esteem and other serious mental health disorders including self-harm and suicidal behaviours. (VicHealth, 2004) (Rees et al, 2011) (Devries et al, 2013).
Figure: Mental health consequences of family violence (DVRCV, 2013)
Emotional |
Shock, terror, guilt, irritability, anger, anxiety, hostility, fear, depression, sense of vulnerability, feelings of helplessness and lack of safety, mental exhaustion |
Cognitive |
Concentration impairment, confusion, self-blame, intrusive thoughts about traumatic experiences (flashbacks), lowered self-esteem and efficacy, fears of losing control, fear of abuse happening again |
Biological |
Sleep disturbance, nightmares, exaggerated startle response, psychosomatic symptoms |
Behavioural |
Avoidance, social withdrawal, interpersonal stress e.g. decreased intimacy and lowered trust in others, physical exhaustion, substance abuse |
Maternal depression and stress during pregnancy and early parenthood has numerous negative effects on the child including brain development and self-regulation of stress and emotion.
Effects on Children
Child abuse and neglect fall into five main subtypes: physical abuse, emotional maltreatment, neglect, sexual abuse and witnessing family violence. Critical factors which influence the way children are affected into adolescence and adulthood are:
- the frequency and duration of the abuse or maltreatment, and
- if more than one type of maltreatment has occurred.
Worse outcomes can be expected if the maltreatment is chronic and is experienced in different forms. (Hunter, Adult Survivors, 2014)
Other factors which may affect the consequences of abuse are:
- the age of the child (the younger the child the more likely they are to experience problems in later life)
- the severity of abuse
- the child’s perception of the abuse (feelings of shame and self-blame will result in worse outcomes)
- the relationship of the child to the perpetrator (increased negative effects when the perpetrator is a father, father-figure, or someone to whom they have a strong emotional attachment)
- whether the abuse was detected and action taken
- the presence of mitigating factors such as family support or perpetrator rehabilitation (Richards, 2011)
- whether the victim has received therapeutic services to assist recovery. (Hunter, Adult Survivors, 2014)
Trauma caused by experiences of family violence, child abuse and neglect may have serious effects on the developing brain. (Hunter, Adult Survivors, 2014). Children who are exposed to family violence risk the health and social problems which may have a lasting impact on their education and employment futures, such as:
- mental health problems such as temperament problems, mood disorders, depression and anxiety
- suicidal behaviour
- antisocial behaviours, peer conflict (physical abuse and exposure to family violence are the most consistent predictors of youth violence)
- high-risk sexual behaviour, teen pregnancy
- school and educational difficulties, poor academic achievement
- impaired cognitive functioning
- increased likelihood of alcohol and substance abuse. (Richards, 2011) (Hunter, Adult Survivors, 2014) (Hunter, Adolescent Survivors 2014)
There have been mixed findings as to the connections between the witnessing or experiencing of violence as a child and the inter-generational transmission of violence or re-victimisation. Adults exposed to violence as a child may fall into two categories: those who are considerably more tolerant than average of family violence; and those who are considerably less tolerant than average of family violence. (Flood & Fergus, An Assault on Our Future: The impact of violence on young people and their relationships, 2008)
Family violence has a direct effect on parenting. While most parents make great efforts to protect their children, preoccupation with conflict often prevents adequate attention being paid to their needs. (DVRCV, 2013). In an attempt to manage violence in the home an abusive partner’s needs may be prioritised over the needs of children. Parental control of children may be undermined by a belittling, insulting and abusive attitude within the home. However, it must be noted that the effects of family violence on parenting may not be permanent and that when abuse ends parenting skills improve. (NCPC, 2010)
Homelessness
Family violence is a significant and growing cause of homelessness. The ABS acknowledges that numbers are probably underreported due to factors such as an expectation that victims will be able to return to the family home, fear of being reported as residing at a particular place, or the stigma associated with being a victim of family violence and the fear that their children will be moved into child protection. (ABS, 2011) (Tually, 2008)
However, the most common reason people now present to the Specialist Homelessness Services (SHS) in Australia is family violence. The SHS reports are available from the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, and shows how many clients sought assistance for reasons of family violence. Domestic and Family Violence and Homelessness are also reported on.
There are four issues seen as critical to women in abusive relationships in relation to homelessness:
- greater diligence by police in enforcing intervention orders;
- more options for women seeking refuge;
- increase women’s awareness of the support services refuges can offer;
- better financial support for women leaving abusive relationships. (Bartels, 2010)
Prevalence & Indicators
It is widely acknowledged that family violence in Australia is underreported. It has been estimated that only 14-36% of incidents are reported, although those rates are increasing as community perceptions about family violence change. (Marcus & Braaf, 2007) (VicPolice, 2012)
Family violence is often not confined to one single act. Since 2006-07, about one quarter of incidents reported to police have a history of between one and three previous reports of family violence. Two out of five victims indicate that the family violence has been occurring for more than two years. (VIC, 2012)
Statistics, Data and Indicators
Statistics on family violence can differ markedly. This is primarily because they are drawn from two different sources: agency statistics (for example, police, courts, hospitals); and population surveys such as the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) Personal Safety Survey. Agency statistics only record those victims who have required help and will necessarily underestimate prevalence in the community. Population surveys may also underestimate prevalence, particularly in certain cultural groups. (Morgan, 2009) Women from CALD (culturally and linguistically diverse) backgrounds, women with disabilities, women in same sex relationships, Aboriginal women, and men who experience partner violence may be reluctant to complete surveys or report the violence, may interpret questions differently to the interviewer, and give different meanings to important terms. It is important to be mindful that generalisations about family violence within these specific groups are subject to limitations in the data. (Marcus & Braaf, 2007) (Chung, 2013) (Duncanson, 2013)
Other reasons why statistics may vary include: the varying definitions of family violence used in different surveys; whether respondents are asked about any time period in their lives, or only the last twelve months; and whether the respondents are drawn from a representative sample of the population. (Chung, 2013)
In Australia there is currently a long term plan to improve the evidence base for family violence. The proposed framework will be comprised of:
- National data standards for key indicators and variables;
- Shared understanding of data priorities and needs against a data collection framework and where to prioritise investment; and
- Coordination of national and state/territory data collections (including existing surveys, and administrative by-product data sets) to improve coverage, reduce duplication, and comparability. (ABS, 2013)
Why are family violence reporting rates low?
Family violence incidents are varied and often ongoing in nature. Incidents occur in a variety of settings and expose a variety of people, particularly women and children, to violence. The result is that a recorded incident may not clearly represent the whole experience of family violence.
Current data and statistics are also affected by:
- Under-reporting (neither victim nor perpetrator are recorded)
- Hidden-reporting (services are access by the victim but family violence is undisclosed)
- Under-recording (due to process or procedural variations in incident reporting or mis-classification of the incident)
- Counting/recording rules (cause of injury may be unrecorded in health data, differences between state and territory laws relating to family violence orders). (ABS, 2013)
Barriers to reporting family violence include:
- victims are less likely to see partner abuse as a crime than stranger abuse;
- a belief that the incident is too minor to report;
- a wish to deal with the incident personally;
- lack of understanding within the community about family violence and a lack of awareness of what constitutes an offence;
- shame and embarrassment;
- fear, including the fear that a child will be moved into child protection as well as fear of retaliation;
- fear of not being believed;
- unwillingness to re-live the incident by reporting it;
- economic dependence on the perpetrator;
- dependence on the perpetrator for immigration status;
- a concern that children and other family members will suffer if the relationship breaks down;
- a concern for the safety of other family members;
- uncertainty regarding the legal/criminal justice system;
- lack of availability, or lack of awareness of, culturally-sensitive response services;
- past experience;
- cultural beliefs. (Morgan & Chadwick, Key Issues in Domestic Violence, 2009) (VIC, 2012) (ABS, 2013) (Humphries, Crossing the Great Divide: Response to Douglas and Walsh, 2010)
Few studies have investigated men as victims of domestic violence, but recent investigations show that men may be reluctant to report or ask for help due to the need to maintain a masculine identity and fear that they will not be taken seriously. For this reason male victimisation may be under reported, and those men who do report will often suffer prolonged abuse before seeking help. (Hogan, 2012) (Drijber, 2013)
Some groups in the community face greater barriers to reporting. A 2013 report based on interviews with participants recruited from a variety of domestic violence services across NSW found that only just over half the victims had reported their most recent family violence incident to the police.
Victims were more likely to report if:
- they had an Apprehended Violence Order against the offender,
- their property had been damaged;
- they were physically injured;
- the abuse was physical or sexual;
- they felt their children were at risk; or if
- they had reported previous domestic violence incidents.
Victims were less likely to report if:
- they were pregnant; or
- had experienced more than five previous incidents of abuse.
The three most common reasons for not reporting were fear of revenge; embarrassment or shame; and feeling that the incident was trivial or unimportant. (Birdsey & Snowball, 2013)
Women who experience violence are more reluctant to report current partners than previous partners. (Phillips & Vandenbroek, 2015) Women are also more likely to talk to a friend, neighbour or other family member about a violent incident involving an intimate partner than seek help from an agency such as a shelter, hotline or counsellor. (Mouzos & Makkai, 2004) The ABS Personal Safety Surveys report data on advice or help sought by men and women who have experienced partner violence, including contact with police.
Research has consistently shown that women and children very rarely make false allegations of violence and abuse. Most recently, in March 2013 the Crown Prosecution Service (UK) published a report indicating that false allegations are rarer than previously thought. The report found most false allegations involved the very young and the vulnerable, often with mental health difficulties and that those people had been the victim of some kind of offence, even if not the one which was reported. The report also found that women may retract an allegation of violence which is true because they are under pressure from the perpetrator; or that they may fabricate evidence in order to bolster a true allegation which they do not think will be believed. (Levitt, 2013)
Current Data
The World Health Organization finds that the worldwide prevalence for intimate partner violence is 30% for women who have ever been in a relationship. As shown in the table below, in high income regions (which includes Australia), prevalence is estimated to be 23.2%. (WHO, 2013) However, this survey defined violence in physical and sexual terms and does not include psychological and other forms of family violence.
ABS Personal Safety Survey
The ABS Personal Safety Survey gives data regarding the following indicators:
- Percentages of men and women who have experienced violence.
- The type of perpetrator (stranger, partner etc).
- Percentages of men and women who have experienced violence by a partner. In recent surveys the term ‘partner’ did not include a boyfriend or girlfriend, or a date.
- Percentages of men and women who have experienced emotional abuse by a partner. Emotional abuse is defined as certain behaviours or actions (such as stopping or trying to stop them from contacting family, friends or community; monitoring their whereabouts; stopping or trying to stop them from working, studying or earning money; lying to their children/family/friends with the intent of turning them against them) that are aimed at preventing or controlling their behaviour with the intent to cause them emotional harm or fear. It must be intended that the behaviours manipulate, control, isolate or intimidate the person they are aimed at. (ABS, 2013)
- Women are more likely than men to have experienced emotional abuse by a partner since the age of 15. When women experienced emotional abuse by a male partner, they were more likely than men to have experienced anxiety or fear due to this abuse. (ABS, 2013)
The most recent ABS Personal Safety Survey results were released in 2013.
Other Surveys
International Violence against Women Survey
Findings from the Australian component of the International Violence against Women Survey (2004) showed that more than half the women surveyed had experienced at least one incident of physical or sexual violence, and around a third of women who had ever had a male intimate partner experienced at least one form of violence from their partner in their lifetime. (Mouzos & Makkai, 2004) A more recent Australian domestic violence and the workplace survey found prevalence to be consistent with these findings. (McFerran, 2011)
Crime Victimisation Survey
The Australian Bureau of Statistics Crime Victimisation Survey has shown that of the most recent incident for persons who were victims of physical assault:
- The offender was more likely to be male than female
- The offender was known to more than half of the victims, and when known, was most likely to be a family member
- The location of assault was most likely to be the victim’s home, followed by work or place of study. (ABS, 2014)
Australian Crime Facts and Figures which show assaults and relationships between offender and victim are also available from the Australian Institute of Criminology.
Victorian Statistics
In Victoria the Family Violence Protection Act 2008, and the recent policing strategy Living Free from Violence – Upholding the Right: the Victorian Police Strategy to Reduce Violence against Women and Children 2009-2014 has resulted in big increases in reporting. (VIC, 2008) (VicPolice, 2009) VicPolice Crime Statistics are held by the Crime Statistics Agency and are the best source of statistics regarding family violence related crime offences. They give the number and rate of family incidents along with demographic characteristics of all parties.
The Victorian crime statistics do not provide disaggregated data reporting sex of victims and perpetrators, however the Victorian Family Database found that nearly 80% of adult victims of family violence incidents and affected family members applying for intervention orders were female. Likewise, the perpetrators of family violence were found to be overwhelmingly male. (VIC, 2012)
Compared with the huge leap in reporting rates of family violence since 2010, rates appear to now be slowing slightly. There has been a strong association between policy change and reporting rates in Victoria since 1999.
Paper continues in Part B