Family Violence Review Paper 2018 Part C

Primary Prevention & Intervention

Primary prevention seeks to prevent violence before it occurs. The focus of primary prevention is on addressing the underlying determinants of violence against women: gender inequality and gender stereotyping, and the broader culture of violence supported by social norms and attitudes in communities.

The Victorian Royal Commission into Family Violence found that ‘programs to prevent violence against women aim to develop and promote respectful relationships generally, to change broader social norms around the use of violence and to create environments in the home that model non-violent and respectful behaviour to children.’ The Commission heard evidence that best-practice prevention approaches have a number of features in common. These are:

• involving the community

• having strategies not just single programs

• engaging men and boys

• taking account of the circumstances of particular groups. (RCFV, 2016)

The Commission found that population-level prevention strategies use the following components and approaches:

• legislative, policy and regulatory reform to support the strategy

• community mobilisation to engage communities in shifting practices and norms

• communications and social marketing to shift social norms and practices

• organisational development to change policies, structures and cultures

• education of key workforces to enable them to build prevention into their job roles

• development of the skills of individuals through direct participation programs

• advocacy to ensure that attention is given to the problem and that barriers are addressed

• research, monitoring and evaluation. (RCFV, 2016)

The Women’s Health East strategy to prevent violence against women in Melbourne’s East notes that effective primary prevention initiatives should:

• Be targeted at all levels in the ecological model: individual, organisational, community and societal

• Include coordinated strategies and messages that are mutually reinforcing across different settings and different target groups;

• Reflect a universal approach (ie a population health approach). (WHE, 2016)

Action on the Determinants of Family violence or gendered drivers (unequal power relations/gender stereotyping /social norms and practices/community attitudes)

In order to promote improved social norms and attitudes to violence across society a combination of universal interventions (directed at the whole population) and targeted interventions (directed at specific at-risk populations) are required. A cross-sectoral approach to primary prevention includes multiple and reinforcing strategies. Opportunities should also be sought to incorporate primary prevention through existing initiatives, policies and programs. (VicHealth, 2006)

Frameworks for Primary Level Intervention

VicHealth: Preventing Violence Before it Occurs

The VicHealth report Preventing Violence Before it Occurs was undertaken in order to develop an evidence-based framework to support the prevention of violence against women. The key themes for action are:

• Promoting equal and respectful relationships between men and women;

• Promoting non-violent social norms and reducing the effects of prior exposure to violence (especially on children); and

• Improving access to resources and systems of support. (VicHealth, 2007)

The report also gives recommendations and implications for planning:

• Prevention strategies should be targeted at the whole population as well as more intensive, tailored strategies for specific at-risk populations;

• Prevention strategies should maintain focus on delivery to women but at the same time increase emphasis on strategies to reach men and boys;

• Especially vulnerable groups should be targeted and should be those groups should be represented in planning processes;

• Aboriginal and refugee communities should be supported to identify primary prevention strategies in their communities;

• Prevention strategies should reach men and women across the life-cycle but also specifically target children, young people and their families at particular points of relationship and family development;

• Existing initiatives, policies and programs as well as new should be used for primary prevention;

• Primary prevention plans should build on existing evidence, knowledge and strengths in the local environment;

• Processes for evaluation and monitoring should be identified.

Our Watch: Change the Story

Our Watch have now developed a national framework for primary prevention of violence against women: Change the Story. The Framework is a joint project between Our Watch, ANROWS and VicHealth. It is based on six elements:

Element 1: An explanatory model that establishes a shared understanding of violence against women and identifies the drivers and reinforcing factors.

Gendered drivers (or determinants) are:

• Condoning of violence against women

• Men’s control of decision-making and limits to women’s independence in public and private life

• Rigid gender roles and stereotyped constructions of masculinity and femininity

• Male peer relations that emphasise aggression and disrespect towards women.

Reinforcing factors (risk factors which can increase frequency or severity of violence) are:

• Condoning of violence in general

• Experience of, and exposure to, violence

• Weakening of pro-social behaviour, especially harmful use of alcohol

• Socio-economic inequality and discrimination

• Backlash factors (increases in violence when male dominance, power or status is challenged).

Element 2: Ten essential and supporting actions that need to be taken to address these drivers and reinforcing factors.

Action to address gendered drivers (or determinants):

• Challenge condoning of violence against women

• Promote women’s independence and decision-making in public life and relationships

• Foster positive personal identities and challenge gender stereotypes and roles

• Strengthen positive, equal and respectful relations between and among women and men, girls and boys

• Promote and normalise gender equality in public and private life.

Action to address reinforcing factors (or risk factors):

• Challenge the normalisation of violence as an expression of masculinity or male dominance

• Prevent exposure to violence and support those affected to reduce its consequences

• Address the intersections between social norms relating to alcohol and gender

• Reduce backlash by engaging men and boys in gender equality, building relationship skills and social connections

• Promote broader social equality and address structural discrimination and disadvantage.

Element 3: Specific, practical techniques, approaches and strategies for working in different settings and for ensuring reach and impact across different communities, contexts and audiences.

• Reaching everyone: An inclusive universal approach, engaging people in all demographic groups, from all cultural and socio-economic backgrounds, of all ages, abilities, genders and sexualities, in urban, rural and remote locations.
  • Tailor strategies for different communities, contexts and audiences to ensure relevance across a diverse population.
  • Make specific and intensive effort with communities affected by multiple forms of disadvantage and discrimination who experience the greatest inequities and violence.
  • Ensuring initiatives are inclusive with the participation, representation and decision-making power of groups that are marginalised, or who experience multiple and compounded forms of discrimination.
  • Work across the life course, and most particularly with young people.

• Multiple settings for action: education and care settings; universities and other tertiary education institutions; workplaces; sports, recreation and social spaces; the arts; health, family and community services; faith-based contexts; the media; advertising and entertainment; public spaces, transport and facilities; legal, justice and corrections contexts.
• Proven and promising techniques: these include;
  • Direct participation programs
  • Community mobilisation and strengthening
  • Organisational development
  • Communications and social marketing
  • Civil society advocacy.

Element 4: Prevention infrastructure: a collaborative national approach requires strong infrastructure to support quality cross-sectoral practice.

Element 5: Stakeholder roles and responsibilities: prevention needs mutually reinforcing strategies at all levels across multiple settings, through partnerships and collaboration.

Element 6: Stages of action and expected outcomes: identifies short, medium and long-term phasing of collaborative activity and expected outcomes.

Women’s Health East: Together for Equality and Respect

The Women’s Health East strategy to prevent violence against women in Melbourne’s East: Together for Equality and Respect gives the following areas and examples for preventative action that is based on the VicHealth framework: (WHE, 2016)

Figure: Areas for Preventative Action

Universal interventions

The Change the Story Framework offers five essential and five supporting actions to address violence against women. They are:

Essential Actions:

• Challenge condoning of violence against women;

• Promote women’s independence and decision-making in public life and relationships;

• Foster positive personal identities and challenge gender stereotypes and roles;

• Strengthen positive, equal and respectful relations between and among women and men, girls and boys;

• Promote and normalise gender equality in public and private life.

Supporting Actions:

• Challenge the normalisation of violence as an expression of masculinity or male dominance;

• Prevent exposure to violence and support those affected to reduce its consequences;

• Address the intersections between social norms relating to alcohol and gender;

• Reduce backlash by engaging men and boys in gender equality, building relationship skills and social connections;

• Promote broader social equality and address structural discrimination and disadvantage. (Our Watch, 2015)

Inequality should be addressed at every level and in every area – organisations, institutions, businesses, workplaces, educations and homes. Change the Story nominate some priority settings for action to encourage shifts in the way people think and behave in relation to gender inequality and violence. (Bolton, Main, & P, 2009) (Our Watch, 2015)

Community Attitudes

Evidence-based intervention strategies to improve community attitudes were outlined by VicHealth in 2006 and have been incorporated into Change the Story: (VicHealth, 2006)

Evidence-informed strategies to improve community attitudes to violence against women

Bystander action

VicHealth have identified the potential for bystanders to make social change by identifying, speaking out about or engaging others in responding to incidents of sexism, discrimination or violence against women. Bystanders can respond to behaviour, attitudes, practices and policies that contribute to sexism, discrimination or violence against women. The VicHealth research found that a third of survey respondents had witnessed sexism towards women in the last twelve months and that they would take bystander action if the behaviour was perceived as serious and that their action would be supported by their peers, community or organisation. (VicHealth, 2012)

Engagement of men and boys

Engaging men and boys to prevent violence against women is a strategy which has evolved with the shift toward primary prevention in the field. The main reasons cited for involving men in the prevention of violence are:

• While most men do not perpetrate violence against women, when violence does occur it is usually perpetrated by men;

• Constructions of masculinity have a strong role in shaping men’s violence;

• Men can take a positive role in helping to stop violence against women. (Baker, 2013)

The positive ways in which men have become engaged in violence prevention are mainly in the arena of attitudinal change, and in secondary and tertiary prevention. These include: men’s behaviour change facilitation; anti-violence campaign organisation and activism (for example, the White Ribbon Campaign); role modelling in community education; facilitating workshops, educational programs and programs for boys; policy making and administrating (see the Northern Interfaith Respectful Relationships Project, below); as interventionist bystanders; and as non-violent men in families. (Pease, 2008)

However, potential problems are seen to exist with the involvement of men such as: a reduction in funding for women’s programs and services; a weakening of commitment to end gender inequalities; a silencing of women’s voices and stories; men’s co-opting of violence campaigns to achieve their own ends; collusion of men with sexist and violence-supportive attitudes of men in men’s groups; more praise and attention for men’s involvement than for women’s; and a failure to earn the trust of women. Men’s involvement in the prevention of violence against women may be tainted by the benefits they receive from gender inequalities and the vested interest they may have in maintaining gender relations as they currently are. Pease suggests that for men’s involvement in the prevention of violence against women, the following conditions need to be met in order to help transform gender relations:

• Involvement of a core group of men who are supportive of gender equality and social justice;

• Support and commitment from men in leadership positions;

• Inclusion of feminist women who are prepared to form alliances with men. (Pease, 2008)

The White Ribbon campaign is a global male-led movement to prevent violence against women. Some of the reasons a male-led movement can be effective are that men’s attitudes are shaped by their male peers, all-male groups provide safety for men to talk, male educators have the opportunity to act as role models, and male leaders demonstrate responsibility for action against men’s violence against women. (Mitchell, 2011)

Targeted Interventions

To have the greatest impact on violence against women and their children, intervention requires an inclusive universal approach, engaging people in all demographic groups, from all backgrounds, of all ages, abilities, genders and sexualities, in all locations. Tailored strategies for different communities, contexts and audiences are needed to ensure relevance, along with specific and intensive effort with communities affected by multiple forms of disadvantage and discrimination. (Our Watch, 2015)

As well as these groups, there is opportunity to target boys and young men, with the potential for this work to influence development of positive attitudes into adulthood. (VicHealth, 2006)

Boys and young men

A review of the effectiveness of programs in changing men’s and boy’s attitudes and behaviours related to gender inequities in health was carried out in the United States in 2010. The researchers found that well-designed programs can lead to short-term change in behaviour and attitudes. Engaging men and boys in programs that include discussions of gender and masculinity, with strong efforts to change such norms, are more effective that programs which acknowledge gender norms but do not focus on them. Also, integrated programs which combine individual education with social and community programs such as mass-media campaigns are more effective in changing behaviour. (Barker et al, 2010)

Settings for Action

Priority settings under the Change the Story framework are:

• Education and care settings for children and young people

• Universities, TAFEs and other tertiary education institutions

• Workplaces, corporations and employee organisations\

• Sports, recreation, social and leisure spaces

• The arts

• Health, family and community services

• Faith-based contexts

• Media

• Popular culture, advertising and entertainment

• Public spaces, transport, infrastructure and facilities

• Legal, justice and corrections contexts. (Our Watch, 2015)

Workplaces, corporations and employee organisations

Workplaces are directly impacted by family violence and play a key role in influencing behaviour. Traditional patterns of workplace organisation and culture support the unequal treatment of women, and the unfair privileging of men and work continues to be closely associated with masculine identity. They can therefore be utilized to ensure: a) that they play a role in supporting gender equality and non-violent norms, and b) that victims of family violence can be reached and supported. By changing a workplace policy, practice and culture an organisation can change from within but also impact surrounding communities and organisations, influence broader policy, and inform community norms. (Holmes & Flood, 2013)

White Ribbon found seven strategies through which men at work could be engaged in change:

1. Through educational programs and social marketing to raise men’s awareness;
2. Workplaces can promote a culture of zero tolerance for disrespectful behaviour;
3. Undermining masculine norms and cultures including moving away from traditional models of masculine leadership;
4. Men can be involved in prevention through their professional roles as doctors, teachers, child care workers, police etc.;
5. Men can be mobilised as advocates for change in workplaces;
6. Men can challenge the structures and systems that produce inequality such as unconscious bias in recruitment;
7. Workplaces can encourage men to spend less time at work and more time involved in parenting and domestic work. (Holmes & Flood, 2013)

Principles for Effective Intervention

Change the Story defines the principles of effective practice for primary prevention:

• Use an explicit gender analysis and focus on changing the gendered drivers of violence against women

• Draw on research, evaluation and consultation and seek advice from those with relevant expertise

• Follow a program logic approach

• Establish partnerships across sectors and between violence prevention/gender equality specialists and ‘mainstream’ organisations

• Tailor initiatives to intended audiences and context

• Develop an evaluation plan focused on measuring changes related to the drivers of violence

• Share information and facilitate transparent reporting and shared learning

• Establish mechanisms to respond to disclosures from victims/survivors and perpetrators who may be identified through their engagement with a prevention program

• Plan for the long-term sustainability of effective initiatives. (Our Watch, 2015)

Examples of Primary Prevention interventions

The following examples have been loosely categorized under the Change the Story framework.

Direct Participation Programs

• Victorian Government Respectful Relationships Education

• Northern Interfaith Respectful Relationships and the VicHealth Preventing violence against women programs webpage.

Community Mobilisation and Strengthening

• Local Government Action Guide for the prevention of violence against women (VicHealth

Organisational Development

• AFL Respect and Responsibility Policy

• DVRCV Partners in Prevention and the VicHealth summary and evaluation

• VicHealth’s Everyone Wins toolkit

• The Municipal Association of Victoria: Local Government and Community Partnerships Program – Preventing Violence Against Women Project

Communications and Social Marketing

• Eliminating Violence Against Women Media Awards (EVAs)

Change the World

• Domestic Violence Victoria media program

Civil Society Advocacy

• White Ribbon campaign

• The Gippsland CommUNITY Walk Against Family Violence

• MAV’s Gender and Emergency Management Strategy. Further insight into the need for a gender perspective in emergency management is available from the Attorney General’s Department.

Primary Prevention Intervention in the EMR

Direct Participation Programs

• Baby Makes 3 - Carrington Health
• Doncare iMatter

Organisational Development

• Preventing Violence against Women in our Community Project - Maroondah City Council
• Generating Equality and Respect - City of Monash

Communications and Social Marketing

• See past the Stereotype – Knox City Council
• Doncare Live Free iTunes app

Civil Society Advocacy

• Knox Accord to End Violence against Women
• 16 Days of Activism
• Maroondah City Council pledge
• The Eastern Media Advocacy Project

Legislative and Policy Reform

• Together for Equality & Respect: A strategy to Prevent Violence against Women in Melbourne’s East 2013-2017 – Women’s Health East
• Link Health & Community have a number of policy documents and projects
• Monash City Council Gender Equity Strategy

Evaluation

There are many challenges involved in evaluating primary prevention interventions in family violence. Prevention requires social change, but evaluation is still in development for this type of complex, multi-level, environmental change. Primary prevention might be targeted at particular aspects of risk, or aim to change particular communities, but these are incremental steps toward broader social change. Outcomes are difficult to identify, define and measure so it is important that clear values and objectives are agreed upon during the developmental phase of the intervention or program. Reaching conclusions on what indicators can demonstrate success is vital, as are timeframes for concluding whether change has been sustainable. (Wall, 2013)

• A guide to monitoring change and progress is being developed by Our Watch as part of the Change the Story framework. (Our Watch, 2015)

• VicHealth A concise guide to evaluating primary prevention projects

• Together for Equality and Respect have evaluation resources for EMR organisations

• Women’s Health East, EACH, the Inner East PCP and Outer East PCP have evaluated the TFER Regional strategy to prevent violence against women

Secondary & Tertiary Intervention

The World Health Organization has guidelines for health professionals offering evidence-based guidance on care, intervention and support for women suffering family violence.

Ending a violent relationship is a process. There are five phases:

1. pre-contemplation (which is managing or resisting abuse)
2. contemplation (beginning to think about leaving)
3. deciding to leave (and making plans)
4. actually leaving
5. establishing a new life. (Meyering, 2012)

A turning point in the process may be facilitated by concern for the safety of others, an escalation of the violence, increased access to support, exhaustion and a realisation that the perpetrator will not change, and a partner being unfaithful. Usually, several attempts are made to end the abusive relationship before a final parting. (Meyering, 2012)

Research has found that the choices and decisions of women experiencing family violence must be viewed in the context of the external interference that may divert energy away from family priorities and limits choices. Common interferences include: harassment and abuse from the ex-partner; using children as a vehicle for abuse; challenge to the new family structure by the ex-partner by stalking, challenging children’s understandings of why the family have separated, disrupting routine through unpredictable visitation, and withholding child support; false reporting to authorities by the ex-partner; the health outcomes of past and continuing abuse, the costs of seeking and receiving help; financial losses; employment, relocation, and loss of material goods, social isolation, and the difficulties of single parenting. (Wuest et al, 2003)

Screening and Assessment

Screening is a process to identify victims of family violence in order to take action or intervene. Routine screening implies that all clients should be asked questions about the existence of family violence. Risk assessment is the process to assess the degree of harm likely to occur as a result of past, present or future family violence. (Robinson & Moloney, 2010) Identifying risk to the mother can be an important way of protecting children from family violence. (DVRCV, 2007)

Indicators of family violence are (particularly if there is a pattern or history):

In Women:

• Physical injury, especially to chest, breasts, abdomen and genitals

• Chronic pain

• Suicide attempts

• Substance abuse

• Depression, anxiety, panic, sleeping disorders, other emotional problems

• Miscarriage

• Frequent vague complaints and use of minor tranquillisers and pain killers

• High stress levels

• Fewer coping and problem-solving skills

• Social isolation.

In Children:

• Low birth weight or low weight for gestational age

• Physical injury, particularly with implausible explanations

• Adjustment problems

• Depression

• Low self-esteem

• Nervous and withdrawn

• Headaches, abdominal complaints, asthma, stuttering, peptic ulcers

• Bedwetting

• Restlessness

• Excessive cruelty to animals

• Using aggressive action and language in play

• Lower social competency

• Accident prone. (DVRCV, 2013)

Screening tools

There is no one screening tool considered to be the most effective and very few have been effectively evaluated.

ARACY The Common Approach (Assessment, Referral and Support) is an evaluated tool for practitioners and is aimed at protecting children and supporting families.

The Framework for Screening, Assessment and Referrals in Family Relationship Centres and the Family Relationships Advice Line (FRC & FRAL Framework): The Attorney-General’s department has produced screening and assessment guidelines with sample questions for screening for violence, and child murder and abduction among others (the FRC & FRAL Framework). This promotes the use of three broad screening questions:

1. Do you have any reason to be concerned about your own safety or the safety of your children?
2. Do you have any other concerns about your children’s wellbeing at the moment?
3. Do you have any reason to be concerned about the safety of anyone else?
4. How do you think your partner/ex-partner would answer these questions? (optional) (AGD, 2006) (Robinson & Moloney, 2010)

NSW Health Area Health Services have another successful screening tool which suggests the following four questions:

1. Within the last year have you been hit, slapped or hurt in other ways by your partner or ex-partner?
2. Are you frightened of your partner or ex-partner?

If the woman answers yes to either or both questions:

1. Are you safe to go home when you leave here?
2. Would you like some assistance with this? (NSWVPRU, 2011)

In Victoria the Family Violence Common Risk Assessment Framework (CRAF) guides practitioners in assessment. The CRAF training program is available and has been evaluated. (DHS, 2013)

There is also a program, DOORS (Detection of Overall Risk Screen) to assist Family Law professionals to assess risk.

Good practice guidelines

These include: screeners should ask questions about family violence as part of routine history taking; question should be asked in private, separately from the partner, screening needs to cover factors other than just physical violence such as financial abuse or intimidation, service professionals need to be aware of factors impeding disclosure, sympathetic and non-judgemental conduct is essential for screeners, understanding that women are unlikely to overestimate risk, training and management protocols for the operation of routine screening are critical for success, the outcome of screening should be that perpetrators are made accountable and victims protected from further risk. (Braaf & Sneddon, 2007)

Some issues with the screening tools are increased workloads, a lack of protocols and training in using the tools, and that using the tool does not necessarily increase protection for the victim or improve long-term outcomes. (Robinson & Moloney, 2010) The Cochrane Collaboration conducted a review into the benefits of screening and found that screening doubled the likelihood that abused women would be identified but did not increase the numbers referred to specialist help. Screening did not reduce the level of violence experienced, nor did it improve women’s health and wellbeing between three and eighteen months after screening. (Taft, et al., 2013)

However, the Domestic Violence Resource Centre of Victoria believe that asking about abuse is an important signal of support. It may suggest to a woman experiencing family violence that she is believed and respected, that abuse has been encountered before, that the issue is being taken seriously and that she can get help. (DVRCV, 2013)

The Domestic Violence Resource Centre Victoria has a booklet of referral options for health providers which can easily be downloaded.

Perpetrator programs or programs for men who use violence

Perpetrator programs aim to reduce the risk of further offending by known perpetrators by changing attitudes and behaviour. (Mitchell, 2011) Although there is agreement that men need to be part of the solution to overcoming gender inequality most program interventions are short term and few have been systematically evaluated. There is little evidence that such programs are empowering for women, or will enable men to resist gendered social norms. Evaluation tends to focus on men’s pathological behaviour, and do not capture change to cultural stereotypes of masculinity. (Keleher & Franklin, 2008)

The programs range from community-based and voluntary, through to court-mandated programs. They can vary in their purposes, emphasis and core understanding of family violence. (Bartels, 2010) While these programs are a part of the intervention story, critics argue that they may place the safety of the partner at risk by creating a false sense of hope for improved behaviours on the part of the perpetrator. (Jamieson & Wendt, 2008) The Cochrane Collaboration reviewed cognitive behavioural programs for men who had physically abused their partners and found that the evidence was insufficient to draw any conclusions on their efficacy. (Smedsland, 2007)

The following programs have been evaluated:

• The LifeWorks Men’s Behaviour Change Program

• The Gold Coast Domestic Violence Integrated Response

• Strength to Change

The Victorian DHHS have Voluntary Men’s Behaviour Change program guidelines.

Perpetrator programs will not be suitable for every community and may have little effect in rural and remote communities due to concerns regarding anonymity and confidentiality, fear of gossip and embarrassment, and strongly patriarchal community attitudes. A more holistic approach will be required in these types of communities. (Jamieson & Wendt, 2008)

Safe at home programs

This model holds perpetrators of violence accountable for their actions and removes them from the family home, allowing women and children to stay. An exclusion order will require the perpetrator to seek accommodation elsewhere. The 2010 Victoria Police Code of Practice for the Investigation of Family Violence specifically includes supporting at risk family members to stay safely in their own homes. Family Violence Safety Notices are issued by police officers and place temporary conditions, including exclusion from the home, on a perpetrator. Safe at Home in Victoria is an integrated model of partnership between police and welfare agencies based on outreach services. Once police have issued a Safety Notice they make a referral to an appropriate agency who can assist the at risk family member with advice about permanent removal of the perpetrator from the family home. (Spinney, Home and Safe? Policy and Practice Innovations to Prevent Women and Children who have Experienced Domestic and Family Violence from Becoming Homeless, 2012)

A comparison of the experiences of women who were obliged to leave the family home and those women who were able to stay in safety in the family home indicated that when safe at home programs are offered among a range of alternatives, they may overcome many of the problems of traditional forms of support including: shortage of appropriate refuge accommodation; shortage of any other types of appropriate accommodation; severance of links with key services and networks; and the physical and emotional difficulties of leaving the family home. It is also a cost-effective alternative. (Netto, Pawson, & Sharp, 2009)

The Australian Housing and Urban Research Institute found that the most effective homelessness prevention schemes should integrate legal issues, housing, and welfare provision. They require effective law to exclude perpetrators, improved police responses and training, access to legal and welfare support which may not otherwise be available if the victim does not seek refuge in shelter networks, judicial support and consistency in treatment of breaches of injunctions and related issues, and accessible, available housing options. (Spinney, 2013)

These programs are not suitable for women and children at extreme risk of violence, and for women who do stay a personal alarm system (Bsafe) is one method which was evaluated and found to be effective in reducing incidence and severity of family violence. (Mitchell, 2011) (WHGNE, n.d.)

Economic Advocacy

Economic advocacy can help build financial capacity following violence. This involves assisting clients to identify and address their financial needs, often through negotiating with banks and other financial institutions, government agencies, employers and targets the structural barriers that impede financial security. It is different to financial literacy and does not focus on individual financial knowledge. Economic advocacy could be pursued more strongly to support women following family violence. (Meyering, 2012a)

Secondary and Tertiary Intervention in the EMR

For local activities see the Share tab

Paper continues in Part D